# `dis` — Disassembler for Python bytecode

Source code: Lib/dis.py

The `dis` module supports the analysis of CPython bytecode by disassembling it. The CPython bytecode which this module takes as an input is defined in the file `Include/opcode.h` and used by the compiler and the interpreter.

CPython implementation detail: Bytecode is an implementation detail of the CPython interpreter. No guarantees are made that bytecode will not be added, removed, or changed between versions of Python. Use of this module should not be considered to work across Python VMs or Python releases.

Changed in version 3.6: Use 2 bytes for each instruction. Previously the number of bytes varied by instruction.

Changed in version 3.10: The argument of jump, exception handling and loop instructions is now the instruction offset rather than the byte offset.

Changed in version 3.11: Some instructions are accompanied by one or more inline cache entries, which take the form of `CACHE` instructions. These instructions are hidden by default, but can be shown by passing `show_caches=True` to any `dis` utility. Furthermore, the interpreter now adapts the bytecode to specialize it for different runtime conditions. The adaptive bytecode can be shown by passing `adaptive=True`.

Changed in version 3.12: The argument of a jump is the offset of the target instruction relative to the instruction that appears immediately after the jump instruction’s `CACHE` entries.

As a consequence, the presence of the `CACHE` instructions is transparent for forward jumps but needs to be taken into account when reasoning about backward jumps.

Changed in version 3.13: The output shows logical labels rather than instruction offsets for jump targets and exception handlers. The `-O` command line option and the `show_offsets` argument were added.

Example: Given the function `myfunc()`:

    def myfunc(alist):
        return len(alist)

the following command can be used to display the disassembly of `myfunc()`:

    >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
      2           RESUME                   0

      3           LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (len + NULL)
                  LOAD_FAST                0 (alist)
                  CALL                     1
                  RETURN_VALUE

(The “2” is a line number).

## Command-line interface

The `dis` module can be invoked as a script from the command line:

    python -m dis [-h] [-C] [-O] [infile]

The following options are accepted:

-h, --help

  Display usage and exit.

-C, --show-caches

  Show inline caches.

-O, --show-offsets

  Show offsets of instructions.

If `infile` is specified, its disassembled code will be written to stdout. Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code received from stdin.

## Bytecode analysis

Added in version 3.4.

The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in a `Bytecode` object that provides easy access to details of the compiled code.

class dis.Bytecode(x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False)

  Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator, asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, string of source code, or a code object (as returned by `compile()`).

  This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed below, most notably `get_instructions()`, as iterating over a `Bytecode` instance yields the bytecode operations as `Instruction` instances.

  If first_line is not `None`, it indicates the line number that should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled code. Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code object.

  If current_offset is not `None`, it refers to an instruction offset in the disassembled code. Setting this means `dis()` will display a “current instruction” marker against the specified opcode.

  If show_caches is `True`, `dis()` will display inline cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

  If adaptive is `True`, `dis()` will display specialized bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

  If show_offsets is `True`, `dis()` will include instruction offsets in the output.

  classmethod from_traceback(tb, *, show_caches=False)

    Construct a `Bytecode` instance from the given traceback, setting current_offset to the instruction responsible for the exception.

  codeobj

    The compiled code object.

  first_line

    The first source line of the code object (if available)

  dis()

    Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same as printed by `dis.dis()`, but returned as a multi-line string).

  info()

    Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information about the code object, like `code_info()`.

  Changed in version 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.

  Changed in version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

Example:

    >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
    >>> for instr in bytecode:
    ...     print(instr.opname)
    ...
    RESUME
    LOAD_GLOBAL
    LOAD_FAST
    CALL
    RETURN_VALUE

## Analysis functions

The `dis` module also defines the following analysis functions that convert the input directly to the desired output. They can be useful if only a single operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn’t useful:

dis.code_info(x)

  Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object information for the supplied function, generator, asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, source code string or code object.

  Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly implementation dependent and they may change arbitrarily across Python VMs or Python releases.

  Added in version 3.2.

  Changed in version 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.

dis.show_code(x, *, file=None)

  Print detailed code object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code object to file (or `sys.stdout` if file is not specified).

  This is a convenient shorthand for `print(code_info(x), file=file)`, intended for interactive exploration at the interpreter prompt.

  Added in version 3.2.

  Changed in version 3.4: Added file parameter.

dis.dis(x=None, *, file=None, depth=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

  Disassemble the x object. x can denote either a module, a class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a byte sequence of raw bytecode. For a module, it disassembles all functions. For a class, it disassembles all methods (including class and static methods). For a code object or sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction. It also recursively disassembles nested code objects. These can include generator expressions, nested functions, the bodies of nested classes, and the code objects used for annotation scopes. Strings are first compiled to code objects with the `compile()` built-in function before being disassembled. If no object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

  The disassembly is written as text to the supplied file argument if provided and to `sys.stdout` otherwise.

  The maximal depth of recursion is limited by depth unless it is `None`. `depth=0` means no recursion.

  If show_caches is `True`, this function will display inline cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

  If adaptive is `True`, this function will display specialized bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

  Changed in version 3.4: Added file parameter.

  Changed in version 3.7: Implemented recursive disassembling and added depth parameter.

  Changed in version 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects.

  Changed in version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

distb(tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False,
show_offset=False)

  Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the last traceback if none was passed. The instruction causing the exception is indicated.

  The disassembly is written as text to the supplied file argument if provided and to `sys.stdout` otherwise.

  Changed in version 3.4: Added file parameter.

  Changed in version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

  Changed in version 3.13: Added the show_offsets parameter.

dis.disassemble(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False)
disco(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False,
show_offsets=False)

  Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if lasti was provided. The output is divided in the following columns:

  1. the line number, for the first instruction of each line

  2. the current instruction, indicated as `-->`,

  3. a labelled instruction, indicated with `>>`,

  4. the address of the instruction,

  5. the operation code name,

  6. operation parameters, and

  7. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.

  The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable names, constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.

  The disassembly is written as text to the supplied file argument if provided and to `sys.stdout` otherwise.

  Changed in version 3.4: Added file parameter.

  Changed in version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

  Changed in version 3.13: Added the show_offsets parameter.

dis.get_instructions(x, *, first_line=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

  Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function, method, source code string or code object.

  The iterator generates a series of `Instruction` named tuples giving the details of each operation in the supplied code.

  If first_line is not `None`, it indicates the line number that should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled code. Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code object.

  The adaptive parameter works as it does in `dis()`.

  Added in version 3.4.

  Changed in version 3.11: Added the show_caches and adaptive parameters.

  Changed in version 3.13: The show_caches parameter is deprecated and has no effect. The cache_info field of each instruction is populated regardless of its value.

dis.findlinestarts(code)

  This generator function uses the `co_lines()` method of the code object code to find the offsets which are starts of lines in the source code. They are generated as `(offset, lineno)` pairs.

  Changed in version 3.6: Line numbers can be decreasing. Before, they were always increasing.

  Changed in version 3.10: The PEP 626 `co_lines()` method is used instead of the `co_firstlineno` and `co_lnotab` attributes of the code object.

  Changed in version 3.13: Line numbers can be `None` for bytecode that does not map to source lines.

dis.findlabels(code)

  Detect all offsets in the raw compiled bytecode string code which are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets.

dis.stack_effect(opcode, oparg=None, *, jump=None)

  Compute the stack effect of opcode with argument oparg.

  If the code has a jump target and jump is `True`, `stack_effect()` will return the stack effect of jumping. If jump is `False`, it will return the stack effect of not jumping. And if jump is `None` (default), it will return the maximal stack effect of both cases.

  Added in version 3.4.

  Changed in version 3.8: Added jump parameter.

  Changed in version 3.13: If `oparg` is omitted (or `None`), the stack effect is now returned for `oparg=0`. Previously this was an error for opcodes that use their arg. It is also no longer an error to pass an integer `oparg` when the `opcode` does not use it; the `oparg` in this case is ignored.

## Python Bytecode Instructions

The `get_instructions()` function and `Bytecode` class provide details of bytecode instructions as `Instruction` instances:

class dis.Instruction

  Details for a bytecode operation

  opcode

    numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values listed below and the bytecode values in the Opcode collections.

  opname

    human readable name for operation

  baseopcode

    numeric code for the base operation if operation is specialized; otherwise equal to `opcode`

  baseopname

    human readable name for the base operation if operation is specialized; otherwise equal to `opname`

  arg

    numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise `None`

  oparg

    alias for `arg`

  argval

    resolved arg value (if any), otherwise `None`

  argrepr

    human readable description of operation argument (if any), otherwise an empty string.

  offset

    start index of operation within bytecode sequence

  start_offset

    start index of operation within bytecode sequence, including prefixed `EXTENDED_ARG` operations if present; otherwise equal to `offset`

  cache_offset

    start index of the cache entries following the operation

  end_offset

    end index of the cache entries following the operation

  starts_line

    `True` if this opcode starts a source line, otherwise `False`

  line_number

    source line number associated with this opcode (if any), otherwise `None`

  is_jump_target

    `True` if other code jumps to here, otherwise `False`

  jump_target

    bytecode index of the jump target if this is a jump operation, otherwise `None`

  positions

    `dis.Positions` object holding the start and end locations that are covered by this instruction.

  Added in version 3.4.

  Changed in version 3.11: Field `positions` is added.

  Changed in version 3.13: Changed field `starts_line`.

  Added fields `start_offset`, `cache_offset`, `end_offset`, `baseopname`, `baseopcode`, `jump_target`, `oparg`, `line_number` and `cache_info`.

class dis.Positions

  In case the information is not available, some fields might be `None`.

  lineno
  end_lineno
  col_offset
  end_col_offset

  Added in version 3.11.

The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions.

General instructions

In the following, We will refer to the interpreter stack as `STACK` and describe operations on it as if it was a Python list. The top of the stack corresponds to `STACK[-1]` in this language.

NOP

  Do nothing code. Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer, and to generate line tracing events.

POP_TOP

  Removes the top-of-stack item:

      STACK.pop()

END_FOR

  Removes the top-of-stack item. Equivalent to `POP_TOP`. Used to clean up at the end of loops, hence the name.

  Added in version 3.12.

END_SEND

  Implements `del STACK[-2]`. Used to clean up when a generator exits.

  Added in version 3.12.

COPY(i)

  Push the i-th item to the top of the stack without removing it from its original location:

      assert i > 0
      STACK.append(STACK[-i])

  Added in version 3.11.

SWAP(i)

  Swap the top of the stack with the i-th element:

      STACK[-i], STACK[-1] = STACK[-1], STACK[-i]

  Added in version 3.11.

CACHE

  Rather than being an actual instruction, this opcode is used to mark extra space for the interpreter to cache useful data directly in the bytecode itself. It is automatically hidden by all `dis` utilities, but can be viewed with `show_caches=True`.

  Logically, this space is part of the preceding instruction. Many opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and will instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime.

  Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data.

  Added in version 3.11.

Unary operations

Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the result back on the stack.

UNARY_NEGATIVE

  Implements `STACK[-1] = -STACK[-1]`.

UNARY_NOT

  Implements `STACK[-1] = not STACK[-1]`.

  Changed in version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact `bool` operand.

UNARY_INVERT

  Implements `STACK[-1] = ~STACK[-1]`.

GET_ITER

  Implements `STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])`.

GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER

  If `STACK[-1]` is a generator iterator or coroutine object it is left as is. Otherwise, implements `STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])`.

  Added in version 3.5.

TO_BOOL

  Implements `STACK[-1] = bool(STACK[-1])`.

  Added in version 3.13.

Binary and in-place operations

Binary operations remove the top two items from the stack (`STACK[-1]` and `STACK[-2]`). They perform the operation, then put the result back on the stack.

In-place operations are like binary operations, but the operation is done in-place when `STACK[-2]` supports it, and the resulting `STACK[-1]` may be (but does not have to be) the original `STACK[-2]`.

BINARY_OP(op)

  Implements the binary and in-place operators (depending on the value of op):

      rhs = STACK.pop()
      lhs = STACK.pop()
      STACK.append(lhs op rhs)

  Added in version 3.11.

BINARY_SUBSCR

  Implements:

      key = STACK.pop()
      container = STACK.pop()
      STACK.append(container[key])

STORE_SUBSCR

  Implements:

      key = STACK.pop()
      container = STACK.pop()
      value = STACK.pop()
      container[key] = value

DELETE_SUBSCR

  Implements:

      key = STACK.pop()
      container = STACK.pop()
      del container[key]

BINARY_SLICE

  Implements:

      end = STACK.pop()
      start = STACK.pop()
      container = STACK.pop()
      STACK.append(container[start:end])

  Added in version 3.12.

STORE_SLICE

  Implements:

      end = STACK.pop()
      start = STACK.pop()
      container = STACK.pop()
      values = STACK.pop()
      container[start:end] = value

  Added in version 3.12.

Coroutine opcodes

GET_AWAITABLE(where)

  Implements `STACK[-1] = get_awaitable(STACK[-1])`, where `get_awaitable(o)` returns `o` if `o` is a coroutine object or a generator object with the `CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE` flag, or resolves `o.__await__`.

  > If the `where` operand is nonzero, it indicates where the instruction occurs:

  > - `1`: After a call to `__aenter__`

  > - `2`: After a call to `__aexit__`

  Added in version 3.5.

  Changed in version 3.11: Previously, this instruction did not have an oparg.

GET_AITER

  Implements `STACK[-1] = STACK[-1].__aiter__()`.

  Added in version 3.5.

  Changed in version 3.7: Returning awaitable objects from `__aiter__` is no longer supported.

GET_ANEXT

  Implement `STACK.append(get_awaitable(STACK[-1].__anext__()))` to the stack. See `GET_AWAITABLE` for details about `get_awaitable`.

  Added in version 3.5.

END_ASYNC_FOR

  Terminates an `async for` loop. Handles an exception raised when awaiting a next item. The stack contains the async iterable in `STACK[-2]` and the raised exception in `STACK[-1]`. Both are popped. If the exception is not `StopAsyncIteration`, it is re-raised.

  Added in version 3.8.

  Changed in version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

CLEANUP_THROW

  Handles an exception raised during a `throw()` or `close()` call through the current frame. If `STACK[-1]` is an instance of `StopIteration`, pop three values from the stack and push its `value` member. Otherwise, re-raise `STACK[-1]`.

  Added in version 3.12.

BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH

  Resolves `__aenter__` and `__aexit__` from `STACK[-1]`. Pushes `__aexit__` and result of `__aenter__()` to the stack:

      STACK.extend((__aexit__, __aenter__())

  Added in version 3.5.

Miscellaneous opcodes

SET_ADD(i)

  Implements:

      item = STACK.pop()
      set.add(STACK[-i], item)

  Used to implement set comprehensions.

LIST_APPEND(i)

  Implements:

      item = STACK.pop()
      list.append(STACK[-i], item)

  Used to implement list comprehensions.

MAP_ADD(i)

  Implements:

      value = STACK.pop()
      key = STACK.pop()
      dict.__setitem__(STACK[-i], key, value)

  Used to implement dict comprehensions.

  Added in version 3.1.

  Changed in version 3.8: Map value is `STACK[-1]` and map key is `STACK[-2]`. Before, those were reversed.

For all of the `SET_ADD`, `LIST_APPEND` and `MAP_ADD` instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is available for further iterations of the loop.

RETURN_VALUE

  Returns with `STACK[-1]` to the caller of the function.

RETURN_CONST(consti)

  Returns with `co_consts[consti]` to the caller of the function.

  Added in version 3.12.

YIELD_VALUE

  Yields `STACK.pop()` from a generator.

  Changed in version 3.11: oparg set to be the stack depth.

  Changed in version 3.12: oparg set to be the exception block depth, for efficient closing of generators.

  Changed in version 3.13: oparg is `1` if this instruction is part of a yield-from or await, and `0` otherwise.

SETUP_ANNOTATIONS

  Checks whether `__annotations__` is defined in `locals()`, if not it is set up to an empty `dict`. This opcode is only emitted if a class or module body contains variable annotations statically.

  Added in version 3.6.

POP_EXCEPT

  Pops a value from the stack, which is used to restore the exception state.

  Changed in version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

RERAISE

  Re-raises the exception currently on top of the stack. If oparg is non-zero, pops an additional value from the stack which is used to set `f_lasti` of the current frame.

  Added in version 3.9.

  Changed in version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

PUSH_EXC_INFO

  Pops a value from the stack. Pushes the current exception to the top of the stack. Pushes the value originally popped back to the stack. Used in exception handlers.

  Added in version 3.11.

CHECK_EXC_MATCH

  Performs exception matching for `except`. Tests whether the `STACK[-2]` is an exception matching `STACK[-1]`. Pops `STACK[-1]` and pushes the boolean result of the test.

  Added in version 3.11.

CHECK_EG_MATCH

  Performs exception matching for `except*`. Applies `split(STACK[-1])` on the exception group representing `STACK[-2]`.

  In case of a match, pops two items from the stack and pushes the non-matching subgroup (`None` in case of full match) followed by the matching subgroup. When there is no match, pops one item (the match type) and pushes `None`.

  Added in version 3.11.

WITH_EXCEPT_START

  Calls the function in position 4 on the stack with arguments (type, val, tb) representing the exception at the top of the stack. Used to implement the call `context_manager.__exit__(*exc_info())` when an exception has occurred in a `with` statement.

  Added in version 3.9.

  Changed in version 3.11: The `__exit__` function is in position 4 of the stack rather than 7. Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items.

LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR

  Pushes `AssertionError` onto the stack. Used by the `assert` statement.

  Added in version 3.9.

LOAD_BUILD_CLASS

  Pushes `builtins.__build_class__()` onto the stack. It is later called to construct a class.

BEFORE_WITH

  This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts. First, it loads `__exit__()` from the context manager and pushes it onto the stack for later use by `WITH_EXCEPT_START`. Then, `__enter__()` is called. Finally, the result of calling the `__enter__()` method is pushed onto the stack.

  Added in version 3.11.

GET_LEN

  Perform `STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))`.

  Added in version 3.10.

MATCH_MAPPING

  If `STACK[-1]` is an instance of `collections.abc.Mapping` (or, more technically: if it has the `Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING` flag set in its `tp_flags`), push `True` onto the stack. Otherwise, push `False`.

  Added in version 3.10.

MATCH_SEQUENCE

  If `STACK[-1]` is an instance of `collections.abc.Sequence` and is not an instance of `str`/`bytes`/`bytearray` (or, more technically: if it has the `Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE` flag set in its `tp_flags`), push `True` onto the stack. Otherwise, push `False`.

  Added in version 3.10.

MATCH_KEYS

  `STACK[-1]` is a tuple of mapping keys, and `STACK[-2]` is the match subject. If `STACK[-2]` contains all of the keys in `STACK[-1]`, push a `tuple` containing the corresponding values. Otherwise, push `None`.

  Added in version 3.10.

  Changed in version 3.11: Previously, this instruction also pushed a boolean value indicating success (`True`) or failure (`False`).

STORE_NAME(namei)

  Implements `name = STACK.pop()`. namei is the index of name in the attribute `co_names` of the code object. The compiler tries to use `STORE_FAST` or `STORE_GLOBAL` if possible.

DELETE_NAME(namei)

  Implements `del name`, where namei is the index into `co_names` attribute of the code object.

UNPACK_SEQUENCE(count)

  Unpacks `STACK[-1]` into count individual values, which are put onto the stack right-to-left. Require there to be exactly count values.:

      assert(len(STACK[-1]) == count)
      STACK.extend(STACK.pop()[:-count-1:-1])

UNPACK_EX(counts)

  Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in `STACK[-1]` into individual values, where the total number of values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.

  The number of values before and after the list value is limited to 255.

  The number of values before the list value is encoded in the argument of the opcode. The number of values after the list if any is encoded using an `EXTENDED_ARG`. As a consequence, the argument can be seen as a two bytes values where the low byte of counts is the number of values before the list value, the high byte of counts the number of values after it.

  The extracted values are put onto the stack right-to-left, i.e. `a, *b, c = d` will be stored after execution as `STACK.extend((a, b, c))`.

STORE_ATTR(namei)

  Implements:

      obj = STACK.pop()
      value = STACK.pop()
      obj.name = value

  where namei is the index of name in `co_names` of the code object.

DELETE_ATTR(namei)

  Implements:

      obj = STACK.pop()
      del obj.name

  where namei is the index of name into `co_names` of the code object.

STORE_GLOBAL(namei)

  Works as `STORE_NAME`, but stores the name as a global.

DELETE_GLOBAL(namei)

  Works as `DELETE_NAME`, but deletes a global name.

LOAD_CONST(consti)

  Pushes `co_consts[consti]` onto the stack.

LOAD_NAME(namei)

  Pushes the value associated with `co_names[namei]` onto the stack. The name is looked up within the locals, then the globals, then the builtins.

LOAD_LOCALS

  Pushes a reference to the locals dictionary onto the stack. This is used to prepare namespace dictionaries for `LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF` and `LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS`.

  Added in version 3.12.

LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS(i)

  Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the value for `co_names[namei]`. If the name is not found there, looks it up in the globals and then the builtins, similar to `LOAD_GLOBAL`. This is used for loading global variables in annotation scopes within class bodies.

  Added in version 3.12.

BUILD_TUPLE(count)

  Creates a tuple consuming count items from the stack, and pushes the resulting tuple onto the stack.:

      assert count > 0
      STACK, values = STACK[:-count], STACK[-count:]
      STACK.append(tuple(values))

BUILD_LIST(count)

  Works as `BUILD_TUPLE`, but creates a list.

BUILD_SET(count)

  Works as `BUILD_TUPLE`, but creates a set.

BUILD_MAP(count)

  Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack. Pops `2 * count` items so that the dictionary holds count entries: `{..., STACK[-4]: STACK[-3], STACK[-2]: STACK[-1]}`.

  Changed in version 3.5: The dictionary is created from stack items instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold count items.

BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP(count)

  The version of `BUILD_MAP` specialized for constant keys. Pops the top element on the stack which contains a tuple of keys, then starting from `STACK[-2]`, pops count values to form values in the built dictionary.

  Added in version 3.6.

BUILD_STRING(count)

  Concatenates count strings from the stack and pushes the resulting string onto the stack.

  Added in version 3.6.

LIST_EXTEND(i)

  Implements:

      seq = STACK.pop()
      list.extend(STACK[-i], seq)

  Used to build lists.

  Added in version 3.9.

SET_UPDATE(i)

  Implements:

      seq = STACK.pop()
      set.update(STACK[-i], seq)

  Used to build sets.

  Added in version 3.9.

DICT_UPDATE(i)

  Implements:

      map = STACK.pop()
      dict.update(STACK[-i], map)

  Used to build dicts.

  Added in version 3.9.

DICT_MERGE(i)

  Like `DICT_UPDATE` but raises an exception for duplicate keys.

  Added in version 3.9.

LOAD_ATTR(namei)

  If the low bit of `namei` is not set, this replaces `STACK[-1]` with `getattr(STACK[-1], co_names[namei>>1])`.

  If the low bit of `namei` is set, this will attempt to load a method named `co_names[namei>>1]` from the `STACK[-1]` object. `STACK[-1]` is popped. This bytecode distinguishes two cases: if `STACK[-1]` has a method with the correct name, the bytecode pushes the unbound method and `STACK[-1]`. `STACK[-1]` will be used as the first argument (`self`) by `CALL` or `CALL_KW` when calling the unbound method. Otherwise, `NULL` and the object returned by the attribute lookup are pushed.

  Changed in version 3.12: If the low bit of `namei` is set, then a `NULL` or `self` is pushed to the stack before the attribute or unbound method respectively.

LOAD_SUPER_ATTR(namei)

  This opcode implements `super()`, both in its zero-argument and two-argument forms (e.g. `super().method()`, `super().attr` and `super(cls, self).method()`, `super(cls, self).attr`).

  It pops three values from the stack (from top of stack down):

  - `self`: the first argument to the current method

  - `cls`: the class within which the current method was defined

  - the global `super`

  With respect to its argument, it works similarly to `LOAD_ATTR`, except that `namei` is shifted left by 2 bits instead of 1.

  The low bit of `namei` signals to attempt a method load, as with `LOAD_ATTR`, which results in pushing `NULL` and the loaded method. When it is unset a single value is pushed to the stack.

  The second-low bit of `namei`, if set, means that this was a two-argument call to `super()` (unset means zero-argument).

  Added in version 3.12.

COMPARE_OP(opname)

  Performs a Boolean operation. The operation name can be found in `cmp_op[opname >> 5]`. If the fifth-lowest bit of `opname` is set (`opname & 16`), the result should be coerced to `bool`.

  Changed in version 3.13: The fifth-lowest bit of the oparg now indicates a forced conversion to `bool`.

IS_OP(invert)

  Performs `is` comparison, or `is not` if `invert` is 1.

  Added in version 3.9.

CONTAINS_OP(invert)

  Performs `in` comparison, or `not in` if `invert` is 1.

  Added in version 3.9.

IMPORT_NAME(namei)

  Imports the module `co_names[namei]`. `STACK[-1]` and `STACK[-2]` are popped and provide the fromlist and level arguments of `__import__()`. The module object is pushed onto the stack. The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import statement, a subsequent `STORE_FAST` instruction modifies the namespace.

IMPORT_FROM(namei)

  Loads the attribute `co_names[namei]` from the module found in `STACK[-1]`. The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a `STORE_FAST` instruction.

JUMP_FORWARD(delta)

  Increments bytecode counter by delta.

JUMP_BACKWARD(delta)

  Decrements bytecode counter by delta. Checks for interrupts.

  Added in version 3.11.

JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT(delta)

  Decrements bytecode counter by delta. Does not check for interrupts.

  Added in version 3.11.

POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE(delta)

  If `STACK[-1]` is true, increments the bytecode counter by delta. `STACK[-1]` is popped.

  Changed in version 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than an absolute target. This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

  Changed in version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

  Changed in version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact `bool` operand.

POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE(delta)

  If `STACK[-1]` is false, increments the bytecode counter by delta. `STACK[-1]` is popped.

  Changed in version 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than an absolute target. This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

  Changed in version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

  Changed in version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact `bool` operand.

POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE(delta)

  If `STACK[-1]` is not `None`, increments the bytecode counter by delta. `STACK[-1]` is popped.

  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

  Added in version 3.11.

  Changed in version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

POP_JUMP_IF_NONE(delta)

  If `STACK[-1]` is `None`, increments the bytecode counter by delta. `STACK[-1]` is popped.

  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward).

  Added in version 3.11.

  Changed in version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

FOR_ITER(delta)

  `STACK[-1]` is an iterator. Call its `__next__()` method. If this yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below it). If the iterator indicates it is exhausted then the byte code counter is incremented by delta.

  Changed in version 3.12: Up until 3.11 the iterator was popped when it was exhausted.

LOAD_GLOBAL(namei)

  Loads the global named `co_names[namei>>1]` onto the stack.

  Changed in version 3.11: If the low bit of `namei` is set, then a `NULL` is pushed to the stack before the global variable.

LOAD_FAST(var_num)

  Pushes a reference to the local `co_varnames[var_num]` onto the stack.

  Changed in version 3.12: This opcode is now only used in situations where the local variable is guaranteed to be initialized. It cannot raise `UnboundLocalError`.

LOAD_FAST_CHECK(var_num)

  Pushes a reference to the local `co_varnames[var_num]` onto the stack, raising an `UnboundLocalError` if the local variable has not been initialized.

  Added in version 3.12.

LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR(var_num)

  Pushes a reference to the local `co_varnames[var_num]` onto the stack (or pushes `NULL` onto the stack if the local variable has not been initialized) and sets `co_varnames[var_num]` to `NULL`.

  Added in version 3.12.

STORE_FAST(var_num)

  Stores `STACK.pop()` into the local `co_varnames[var_num]`.

DELETE_FAST(var_num)

  Deletes local `co_varnames[var_num]`.

MAKE_CELL(i)

  Creates a new cell in slot `i`. If that slot is nonempty then that value is stored into the new cell.

  Added in version 3.11.

LOAD_DEREF(i)

  Loads the cell contained in slot `i` of the “fast locals” storage. Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.

  Changed in version 3.11: `i` is no longer offset by the length of `co_varnames`.

LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF(i)

  Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the name associated with slot `i` of the “fast locals” storage in this mapping. If the name is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in slot `i`, similar to `LOAD_DEREF`. This is used for loading free variables in class bodies (which previously used `LOAD_CLASSDEREF`) and in annotation scopes within class bodies.

  Added in version 3.12.

STORE_DEREF(i)

  Stores `STACK.pop()` into the cell contained in slot `i` of the “fast locals” storage.

  Changed in version 3.11: `i` is no longer offset by the length of `co_varnames`.

DELETE_DEREF(i)

  Empties the cell contained in slot `i` of the “fast locals” storage. Used by the `del` statement.

  Added in version 3.2.

  Changed in version 3.11: `i` is no longer offset by the length of `co_varnames`.

COPY_FREE_VARS(n)

  Copies the `n` free variables from the closure into the frame. Removes the need for special code on the caller’s side when calling closures.

  Added in version 3.11.

RAISE_VARARGS(argc)

  Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the `raise` statement, depending on the value of argc:

  - 0: `raise` (re-raise previous exception)

  - 1: `raise STACK[-1]` (raise exception instance or type at `STACK[-1]`)

  - 2: `raise STACK[-2] from STACK[-1]` (raise exception instance or type at `STACK[-2]` with `__cause__` set to `STACK[-1]`)

CALL(argc)

  Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by `argc`. On the stack are (in ascending order):

  - The callable

  - `self` or `NULL`

  - The remaining positional arguments

  `argc` is the total of the positional arguments, excluding `self`.

  `CALL` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

  Added in version 3.11.

  Changed in version 3.13: The callable now always appears at the same position on the stack.

  Changed in version 3.13: Calls with keyword arguments are now handled by `CALL_KW`.

CALL_KW(argc)

  Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by `argc`, including one or more named arguments. On the stack are (in ascending order):

  - The callable

  - `self` or `NULL`

  - The remaining positional arguments

  - The named arguments

  - A `tuple` of keyword argument names

  `argc` is the total of the positional and named arguments, excluding `self`. The length of the tuple of keyword argument names is the number of named arguments.

  `CALL_KW` pops all arguments, the keyword names, and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

  Added in version 3.13.

CALL_FUNCTION_EX(flags)

  Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword arguments. If the lowest bit of flags is set, the top of the stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword arguments. Before the callable is called, the mapping object and iterable object are each “unpacked” and their contents passed in as keyword and positional arguments respectively. `CALL_FUNCTION_EX` pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object.

  Added in version 3.6.

PUSH_NULL

  Pushes a `NULL` to the stack. Used in the call sequence to match the `NULL` pushed by `LOAD_METHOD` for non-method calls.

  Added in version 3.11.

MAKE_FUNCTION

  Pushes a new function object on the stack built from the code object at `STACK[1]`.

  Changed in version 3.10: Flag value `0x04` is a tuple of strings instead of dictionary

  Changed in version 3.11: Qualified name at `STACK[-1]` was removed.

  Changed in version 3.13: Extra function attributes on the stack, signaled by oparg flags, were removed. They now use `SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE`.

SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE(flag)

  Sets an attribute on a function object. Expects the function at `STACK[-1]` and the attribute value to set at `STACK[-2]`; consumes both and leaves the function at `STACK[-1]`. The flag determines which attribute to set:

  - `0x01` a tuple of default values for positional-only and positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order

  - `0x02` a dictionary of keyword-only parameters’ default values

  - `0x04` a tuple of strings containing parameters’ annotations

  - `0x08` a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a closure

  Added in version 3.13.

BUILD_SLICE(argc)

  Pushes a slice object on the stack. argc must be 2 or 3. If it is 2, implements:

      end = STACK.pop()
      start = STACK.pop()
      STACK.append(slice(start, stop))

  if it is 3, implements:

      step = STACK.pop()
      end = STACK.pop()
      start = STACK.pop()
      STACK.append(slice(start, end, step))

  See the `slice()` built-in function for more information.

EXTENDED_ARG(ext)

  Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default one byte. ext holds an additional byte which act as higher bits in the argument. For each opcode, at most three prefixal `EXTENDED_ARG` are allowed, forming an argument from two-byte to four-byte.

CONVERT_VALUE(oparg)

  Convert value to a string, depending on `oparg`:

      value = STACK.pop()
      result = func(value)
      STACK.append(result)

  - `oparg == 1`: call `str()` on value

  - `oparg == 2`: call `repr()` on value

  - `oparg == 3`: call `ascii()` on value

  Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).

  Added in version 3.13.

FORMAT_SIMPLE

  Formats the value on top of stack:

      value = STACK.pop()
      result = value.__format__("")
      STACK.append(result)

  Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).

  Added in version 3.13.

FORMAT_SPEC

  Formats the given value with the given format spec:

      spec = STACK.pop()
      value = STACK.pop()
      result = value.__format__(spec)
      STACK.append(result)

  Used for implementing formatted literal strings (f-strings).

  Added in version 3.13.

MATCH_CLASS(count)

  `STACK[-1]` is a tuple of keyword attribute names, `STACK[-2]` is the class being matched against, and `STACK[-3]` is the match subject. count is the number of positional sub-patterns.

  Pop `STACK[-1]`, `STACK[-2]`, and `STACK[-3]`. If `STACK[-3]` is an instance of `STACK[-2]` and has the positional and keyword attributes required by count and `STACK[-1]`, push a tuple of extracted attributes. Otherwise, push `None`.

  Added in version 3.10.

  Changed in version 3.11: Previously, this instruction also pushed a boolean value indicating success (`True`) or failure (`False`).

RESUME(context)

  A no-op. Performs internal tracing, debugging and optimization checks.

  The `context` oparand consists of two parts. The lowest two bits indicate where the `RESUME` occurs:

  - `0` The start of a function, which is neither a generator, coroutine nor an async generator

  - `1` After a `yield` expression

  - `2` After a `yield from` expression

  - `3` After an `await` expression

  The next bit is `1` if the RESUME is at except-depth `1`, and `0` otherwise.

  Added in version 3.11.

  Changed in version 3.13: The oparg value changed to include information about except-depth

RETURN_GENERATOR

  Create a generator, coroutine, or async generator from the current frame. Used as first opcode of in code object for the above mentioned callables. Clear the current frame and return the newly created generator.

  Added in version 3.11.

SEND(delta)

  Equivalent to `STACK[-1] = STACK[-2].send(STACK[-1])`. Used in `yield from` and `await` statements.

  If the call raises `StopIteration`, pop the top value from the stack, push the exception’s `value` attribute, and increment the bytecode counter by delta.

  Added in version 3.11.

HAVE_ARGUMENT

  This is not really an opcode. It identifies the dividing line between opcodes in the range [0,255] which don’t use their argument and those that do (`< HAVE_ARGUMENT` and `>= HAVE_ARGUMENT`, respectively).

  If your application uses pseudo instructions or specialized instructions, use the `hasarg` collection instead.

  Changed in version 3.6: Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes `< HAVE_ARGUMENT` ignore it. Before, only opcodes `>= HAVE_ARGUMENT` had an argument.

  Changed in version 3.12: Pseudo instructions were added to the `dis` module, and for them it is not true that comparison with `HAVE_ARGUMENT` indicates whether they use their arg.

  Deprecated since version 3.13: Use `hasarg` instead.

CALL_INTRINSIC_1

  Calls an intrinsic function with one argument. Passes `STACK[-1]` as the argument and sets `STACK[-1]` to the result. Used to implement functionality that is not performance critical.

  The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

  Operand | Description
  --- | ---
  `INTRINSIC_1_INVALID` | Not valid
  `INTRINSIC_PRINT` | Prints the argument to standard out. Used in the REPL.
  `INTRINSIC_IMPORT_STAR` | Performs `import *` for the named module.
  `INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR` | Extracts the return value from a `StopIteration` exception.
  `INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP` | Wraps an aync generator value
  `INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE` | Performs the unary `+` operation
  `INTRINSIC_LIST_TO_TUPLE` | Converts a list to a tuple
  `INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR` | Creates a `typing.TypeVar`
  `INTRINSIC_PARAMSPEC` | Creates a `typing.ParamSpec`
  `INTRINSIC_TYPEVARTUPLE` | Creates a `typing.TypeVarTuple`
  `INTRINSIC_SUBSCRIPT_GENERIC` | Returns `typing.Generic` subscripted with the argument
  `INTRINSIC_TYPEALIAS` | Creates a `typing.TypeAliasType`; used in the `type` statement. The argument is a tuple of the type alias’s name, type parameters, and value.

  Added in version 3.12.

CALL_INTRINSIC_2

  Calls an intrinsic function with two arguments. Used to implement functionality that is not performance critical:

      arg2 = STACK.pop()
      arg1 = STACK.pop()
      result = intrinsic2(arg1, arg2)
      STACK.append(result)

  The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

  Operand | Description
  --- | ---
  `INTRINSIC_2_INVALID` | Not valid
  `INTRINSIC_PREP_RERAISE_STAR` | Calculates the `ExceptionGroup` to raise from a `try-except*`.
  `INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_BOUND` | Creates a `typing.TypeVar` with a bound.
  `INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_CONSTRAINTS` | Creates a `typing.TypeVar` with constraints.
  `INTRINSIC_SET_FUNCTION_TYPE_PARAMS` | Sets the `__type_params__` attribute of a function.

  Added in version 3.12.

Pseudo-instructions

These opcodes do not appear in Python bytecode. They are used by the compiler but are replaced by real opcodes or removed before bytecode is generated.

SETUP_FINALLY(target)

  Set up an exception handler for the following code block. If an exception occurs, the value stack level is restored to its current state and control is transferred to the exception handler at `target`.

SETUP_CLEANUP(target)

  Like `SETUP_FINALLY`, but in case of an exception also pushes the last instruction (`lasti`) to the stack so that `RERAISE` can restore it. If an exception occurs, the value stack level and the last instruction on the frame are restored to their current state, and control is transferred to the exception handler at `target`.

SETUP_WITH(target)

  Like `SETUP_CLEANUP`, but in case of an exception one more item is popped from the stack before control is transferred to the exception handler at `target`.

  This variant is used in `with` and `async with` constructs, which push the return value of the context manager’s `__enter__()` or `__aenter__()` to the stack.

POP_BLOCK

  Marks the end of the code block associated with the last `SETUP_FINALLY`, `SETUP_CLEANUP` or `SETUP_WITH`.

JUMP

JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT

  Undirected relative jump instructions which are replaced by their directed (forward/backward) counterparts by the assembler.

LOAD_CLOSURE(i)

  Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot `i` of the “fast locals” storage.

  Note that `LOAD_CLOSURE` is replaced with `LOAD_FAST` in the assembler.

  Changed in version 3.13: This opcode is now a pseudo-instruction.

LOAD_METHOD

  Optimized unbound method lookup. Emitted as a `LOAD_ATTR` opcode with a flag set in the arg.

## Opcode collections

These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode instructions:

Changed in version 3.12: The collections now contain pseudo instructions and instrumented instructions as well. These are opcodes with values `>= MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE` and `>= MIN_INSTRUMENTED_OPCODE`.

dis.opname

  Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.

dis.opmap

  Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.

dis.cmp_op

  Sequence of all compare operation names.

dis.hasarg

  Sequence of bytecodes that use their argument.

  Added in version 3.12.

dis.hasconst

  Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.

dis.hasfree

  Sequence of bytecodes that access a free variable. ‘free’ in this context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope. It does not include references to global or builtin scopes.

dis.hasname

  Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.

dis.hasjump

  Sequence of bytecodes that have a jump target. All jumps are relative.

  Added in version 3.13.

dis.haslocal

  Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.

dis.hascompare

  Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.

dis.hasexc

  Sequence of bytecodes that set an exception handler.

  Added in version 3.12.

dis.hasjrel

  Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.

  Deprecated since version 3.13: All jumps are now relative. Use `hasjump`.

dis.hasjabs

  Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.

  Deprecated since version 3.13: All jumps are now relative. This list is empty.